Biology and Race
•	Importance of individual differences
•	IQ testing
•	Race and gender
Individual Differences and Human Nature
•	French thinkers in Enlightenment
–	Stressed universal human nature
–	Individual differences seen as environmental
•	Germans obsessed with national Geist
•	British obsessed with individual differences
–	The legacy of Hobbes and economists
–	Gradations help to define human nature
Individual Differences are Obvious
•	Most obvious
–	Class
–	Gender
–	Race
–	Age
•	Genetic or environmental?
•	Psychological vs. moral consequences
Late Victorian Obsession with Individual Differences
•	Rise in interest through 19th Century for English
•	Social Darwinism and eugenics
•	How to incorporate race and gender
•	Theory of evolution
–	Provides for intermediate “forms” or species
–	“Humanness” has to be defined
The Science of Individual Differences: Galton
•	Francis Galton (1822-1911)
•	Collected huge amounts of data
•	Fingerprints
•	Correlation coefficient
•	Hereditary Genius (1869)
•	Eugenics 
American H.H. Goddard
•	Ran home for feeble-minded boys and girls
•	Write extensively on hereditary retardation
•	Coined phrase “moron”
•	Supported modified eugenics
–	Institutionalization of retarded
–	Not necessarily sterilization
•	Most famous book on the Kallikak families
The Kallikaks (1913)
•	Martin Kallikak joined Revolutionary Army at age 17
•	Son by feeble-minded bar maid
•	Later married into a respectable family
Martin Kallikak’s “Bad” Family
•	480 descendants
•	143 feeble-minded
•	36 illegitimate
•	33 sexual immoral
•	24 alcoholics
•	3 criminal 
Martin Kallikak’s “Good” Family
•	496 descendants
•	All normal
•	Only 1 sexually loose man
•	Married into best families
•	Half dozen towns in New Jersey named after descendants
IQ Testing
•	First test by Binet (1906)
–	Practical reasons
–	Did not assume differences were genetic
•	Stanford-Binet
–	Terman
–	Assumed heredity
–	Found racial and class differences
Yerkes and Army Alpha
•	Tests during WWI by Yerkes
•	Found that average mental age was 13
•	Much less among recent immigrants and minorities
–	Test highly sensitive to education
–	Yet assumed genetic
•	Partially responsible for restrictions on immigration during 1920s.
18th/19th Century Conceptions of Race
•	Race as common lineage
•	Race as discrete categories
Race as Common Lineage
•	All people descended from common Adam or Noah
•	Races based primarily on appearance
•	Skin color due to environment
•	Behavioral differences based on culture rather than genes – not essentialized
•	Hence all people equally human 
•	But some more advanced because of learning and culture
Race as Discrete Categories
•	Separation early – Ham?
•	Had developed quite differently over 6000 years
•	Hence quite different
–	Appearance
–	Behavior
–	Intelligence
–	Culture
Darwin – Race as Sub-Species
•	Evolution lengthened time frame 
•	And gave time for real evolutionary changes
–	Brains become larger for more advanced
–	Stimulated by greater environmental pressures
•	Races as sub-species
–	Could still interbreed
–	But because of geography usually did not
Africans as Children – recapitulation
•	Haekel – ontogeny recapitulated phylogeny
•	So “less developed” races are like children
–	Physically – smaller brains
–	Emotionally
–	Intellectually
•	And seen as closer to apes or other primates
“Proof” of Genetic Group Differences
•	Finding empirical support
•	Most common was measuring brain size
–	Whites from Northern Europe always biggest
–	Jews and Asian somewhat less
–	Blacks lowest of all
–	Women smaller than men
•	Problems
–	Data selectively presented
–	No correction for stature or gender
The Criminal Face
•	Cesare Lombroso
•	Again the recapitulation argument
–	So criminality not merely genetic
–	But based on evolutionary program
•	Criminals more “ape-like”
Implications for Human Nature
•	Evolution stressed continuities between animals and humans
•	But continuities undercut specialness of humans
–	Therefore it was possible to have degrees of being human
–	And generally gradations of features
•	Allows for more highly developed to be seen as defining human